Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism is one of the smallest of the major world religions in number of adherents, but has historically been one of the most influential. It emerged from the proto-Indo-European spiritual practices that also gave birth to the religions of India. It was first to established by an inspired prophet/poet/philosopher, Zoroaster, who reformed Persian religious beliefs that may have begun to coalesce as early as 4,000 years ago. It helped to shape Mahayana Buddhism. Zoroastrianism is regarded as being a major influence on the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Zoroastrianism introduced to the “People of the Book” concepts such as the cosmic struggle between right and wrong, the importance of making ethical choices, monotheism, a hierarchy of spiritual beings that mediate between God and humanity, a judgment for each individual after their death, the arrival of a Messiah at the end of the world, and an apocalyptic final struggle that culminates in the triumph of good over evil. Zoroastrianism was the state religion of three Persian dynasties until the Muslim conquest of Persia in the seventh century CE. Zoroastrian refugees, called Parsis, fled Muslim persecution in Iran by emigrating to India. Currently, Zoroastrianism has an estimated 100,000 to 200,000 worshipers worldwide, mainly the of Parsi of India, Middle Easterners, and immigrants to Western nations from these two regions.
Most of what is known about Zoroaster (Zarathrustra in ancient Persian) comes from the Avesta, a collection of Zoroastrian religious scriptures. Scholars disagree about exactly when Zoroaster may have lived. Some believe that he was a contemporary of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Persian Empire in the sixth century BCE, but linguistic and archaeological evidence indicates an earlier date, between 1500 and 1200 BCE. In the 1990s, Russian archaeologists at Gonur Tepe, a Bronze Age site in Turkmenistan, discovered the remains of what they believed to be an early Zoroastrian fire temple. The temple dates to the second millennium BCE, making it the earliest known site associated with Zoroastrianism.
Zoroaster is believed to have been a native of the region of present northeastern Iran or southwestern Afghanistan. He was most likely born into a tribe that practiced an ancient polytheistic religion, often referred to as Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism, which shared attributes with early forms of Hinduism. With no written scripture, it is unknown how the faith was observed or how rituals were conducted. Certain aspects of the faith, however, were preserved in later Zoroastrian works. It is known there was a priestly class (later known as the magi) and the gods were worshipped at outdoor shrines known as Fire Temples featuring altars on which the fire of the god was always kept burning. Unlike neighboring Egypt or Mesopotamia, Zoroastrians built no temples to the gods in ancient times.
According to Zoroastrian tradition, Zoroaster had a divine vision, at the age of thirty, of a supreme being while participating in a pagan purification rite. On a riverbank before him, a bright image appeared of a celestial being who identified himself as Vohu Mahah (good purpose) and proclaimed he had been sent by Ahura Mazda to deliver a message: the priests had misunderstood the divine truth and were worshipping false gods. There was only one god, Ahura Mazda, who did not require blood sacrifices but only ethical behavior. Zoroaster had been chosen to preach this revelation. Zoroaster's new faith was founded on the vision he had received by the river and the answers given to his continual prayers. The religion he founded is based on five principles: (1) the supreme god is Ahura Mazda, (2) Ahura Mazda is all-good. (3) His eternal opponent, Angra Mainyu, is all-evil, (4) goodness is apparent through good thoughts, good words, and good deeds, and (5) everyone has free will to choose between good and evil. Popular deities such as Mithra or Anahita were no longer to be worshipped as immortal, all-powerful deities but could still be honored as representations of Ahura Mazda's benevolence.
Zoroaster began to teach his followers to worship a single god, his message was not enthusiastically received by others. He was rejected by the priests, his life was threatened, and he was forced to flee his home. In time, he found himself at the court of a king named Vishtaspa and engaged in a theological debate with his court priests for the king's entertainment. According to the Avesta, Zoroaster defeated all their arguments and clearly demonstrated the validity of his revelation. As this challenged the established order, however, Vishtaspa was not pleased and had Zoroaster thrown into prison. While jailed, Zoroaster miraculously healed Vishtaspa's favorite horse of paralysis, so the king freed him and listened to his message again and believed it to be true. According to Zoroastrian tradition, Vishtaspa became the first convert. Since he was the king, his subjects quickly followed his lead.
In Zoroastrian cosmology, Ahura Mazda is opposed by Angra Mainyu, personified as a destructive spirit and the adversary of every good thing. This dualistic struggle between good Ahura Mazda and evil Angra Mainyu will ultimately be resolved with an eschatology that predicts the ultimate triumph of good over evil. Zoroastrianism is generally described as being monotheistic, but many scholars point out that it also possesses polytheistic and henotheistic (adherence to one god out of several equivalent gods) attributes.
The Avesta, the scripture of Zoroastrianism, was developed from a longstanding oral tradition. The original prayers and hymns of the Avesta were composed and committed to memory in a now-extinct language known as Avestan, a name derived from the work itself. During the Persian Sassanian Empire (224-651 CE), it was committed to writing through the invention of an alphabet based on Aramaic script. The Avesta does not address where Angra Mainyu and the forces of evil arose since the universe was created by an all-powerful deity who is all-good. Zoroaster's prayers and admonitions suggest that the original audience already knew Angra Mainyu's origin, so this was probably another aspect of the old religion which carried over into Zoroastrianism. The Avesta is usually divided into the following sections:
(1) Yasna-Gathas, 17 hymns divided into five groups based on meter. Yasna (devotion) is the term for Zoroastrian religious services, but it also alludes to the hymns which encourage devotion. The Gatha is the separate grouping of these hymns (Ahunavaiti Gatha, Ushtavaiti Gatha, Spentamainyush Gatha, Vohukshathra Gatha, and Vahishtoishti Gatha). The purpose of the hymns is to incline the mind toward enlightenment by focusing it on the transcendent majesty of Ahura Mazda.
(2) Vispered, 23 prayers which supplement the Yasnas, and also the name of the ceremonies conducted between the rising of the sun and noon in which these prayers are recited.
(3) Yashts, 21 hymns addressed to divine entities and sacred elements such as water and fire. When Zoroaster reformed preexisting Persian religion, he preserved many popular gods such as Anahita (goddess of water, fertility, health, and wisdom) and Mithra (god of the rising sun, contracts, and covenants), but these were no longer regarded as deities, but rather as divine emanations of Ahura Mazda.
(4) Vendidad, a collection consisting of 22 sections which define an ecclesiastical code. It includes myths, prayers, observances, rituals, as well as instruction on subjects ranging from personal hygiene to acceptable and unacceptable social behavior, defense against evil demons, proper care for the dead and funerary rituals (including the role of dogs in driving off evil spirits after a death), respect for others, charity, care for animals, and many other topics.
(5) Minor Texts, prayers and invocations of various deities, regarded as emanations of Ahura Mazda, for assistance. The Minor Texts are the Siroza (invocations of deities in times of need), the Nyayeshes (prayers to divine elements of fire, water, and to the sun and moon), the Gahs (invocations of and prayers to the Five Deities of the Day, and the Afrinagans (blessings for the dead and for the seasons).
(6) Fragments, incomplete texts or those which do not fit with other sections. These include information about pre-Zoroastrian deities and important theological topics like the end of the world and personal redemption.
Zoroastrian tradition holds that the original work of 21 books was revealed by Ahura Mazda, the One True God, to Zoroaster who recited them to his benefactor King Vishtaspa. The king had them inscribed on sheets of gold. This original work was then memorized, recited at services, and orally transmitted for generations until it was committed to writing by the Sassanians. After having become a text, it began to be accompanied by commentaries and other works such as the Zend (exegetical glosses, paraphrases, commentaries and translations of the Avesta's texts), and, later, the Denkard (a 10th century compendium of Zoroastrian beliefs and customs of this era), and the Bundahisn (a 9th century scripture giving an account of the creation, history, and duration of the world, the origin of humanity, and the nature of the universe).
The central value of Zoroastrianism is human free will. A person who follows the precepts of Ahura Mazda can live a fulfilling life. Failure to do so entangles one in deceit and leads to a life of strife and confusion. Starting with the Five Principles as the basis for one's decision to be good, a believer is obligated to express their faith through the fourth Principle, “goodness is apparent through good thoughts, good words, and good deeds.” This requires that the truth be always told, and that promises be kept. Charity must be practiced, especially to those less fortunate than the practitioner. Love for others must be demonstrated, even if others do not reciprocate this love. Moderation must also be practiced in every endeavor, especially moderation in diet.
Although there is evidence of conversion efforts by Zoroastrians after Zoroaster's initial mission, the faith is said to have spread mainly through the virtuous example of believers who adhered to three core values of behavior: (1) to make friends of enemies, (2) to make the wicked righteous, and (3) to make the ignorant learned. Living in accordance with these values would not only result in a good and productive life but would pave the way to rewards in the afterlife. Upon being born, a person's higher spirit (fravashi) sends one's soul (urvan) into the body to experience the material world where it can choose between good and evil. At death, the soul is believed to linger on earth for three days, close to the corpse. A dog is brought into the room containing the corpse to scare away evil spirits and protect the soul while the gods judge the life of the deceased.
After these three days, the soul is reunited with its higher spirit and travels to the Chinvat Bridge, the span over the abyss between the living and the dead. On this bridge it encounters the two dogs who guard it. The dogs welcome justified souls and rebuke evil souls. The soul is then met by the Holy Maiden, Daena, who is representative of the conscience of the deceased. To justified souls, she appears as a beautiful maiden. To condemned souls, she appears as a hideous old hag. Daena comforts the newly arrived blessed soul and leads it onto the bridge where it is protected from demons by the angel Suroosh.
The Chinvat Bridge widens to better accommodate justified souls but narrows and becomes impassible for the condemned. Suroosh guides the soul to the angel Rashnu, the righteous judge of the dead. Souls whose good and bad deeds were equivalent are consigned to Hamistakan, a type of purgatory, where they remain until the day of resurrection at the end of time to be reunited with Ahura Mazda. Those who have lived properly enter the paradise of the House of Song. Those who have not lived properly are dropped from the bridge into the hell of the House of Lies where they were tormented in darkness and solitude, no matter how many other condemned souls may be nearby. There are four ascending levels of paradise, the highest being the domain of Ahura Mazda himself. There are four descending levels of hell, the lowest of which is utterly devoid of light.
Even if one is assigned to the lowest level of hell, however, it is not an eternal punishment. Ahura Mazda, as Ultimate Goodness, would not let any of his creations suffer eternally. In time, a messiah will arrive, the Saoshyant (One Who Brings Benefit) who will inaugurate the Frashokereti (End of Time) when all souls would be gathered to Ahura Mazda in a joyful reunion, even if they were in the darkest depth of hell. Angra Mainyu is destroyed. All creation will be reunited with Ahura Mazda in the Kshatra Vairya, or "best dominion," and resurrected to immortality.
Zoroastrians demonstrate their decision to be good through their daily actions and through ritual worship of Ahura Mazda through the service known as the yasna. The purpose of the yasna is to bear witness to asha (truth, order), to resist the lie (druj), and to strengthen the resolve of believers to resist the forces of darkness. The world is full of unseen spirits both good, the ahuras, and evil, the daevas.
The Faravahar is an ancient symbol of the Zoroastrian faith. It depicts a bearded man with one hand reaching forward. He stands above a pair of wings that are outstretched from a circle representing eternity. Scholars are uncertain about the source and identity of the bearded man of the Faravahar. Fire is another important symbol of Zoroastrianism, as it represents light, warmth, and the purifying power of fire. Water is also regarded as symbol of purity in Zoroastrian religion. Some Zoroastrians also recognize the evergreen cypress tree as a symbol of eternal life.
Zoroastrian rituals always involve fire, the sacred element, which was the last to be created, and water, which represents wisdom and was among the first created elements. A fire is kept ablaze at an altar known as a Fire Temple, and a priest officiates in reciting the sacred words and offering up prayers in the presence of the sacred flame. At the conclusion of the service, water is honored through the rite of ab-zohr, an offering to purify the waters of the world and make amends for damages to it. According to legend, three ancient Zoroastrian Fire Temples, known as the Great Fires, were said to have come directly from Ahura Mazda at the beginning of time.
Zoroastrians celebrate a variety of holidays. Naw-Ruz is an ancient Persian holiday celebrating the new year. It is one of only two festivals mentioned by Zoroaster in the Avesta. Yalda celebrates the winter solstice as a triumph of good over evil as the nights begin to shorten and the days begin to lengthen. Zarathust No Diso commemorates the death of Zoroaster and is considered a day of mourning. It is often attended by prayers and studies on the life of Zoroaster. Other holidays are dedicated to particular spirits or mark historic events.
Zoroastrians gave their dead “sky burials.” They built circular, flat-topped towers called dakhmas, or towers of silence. There corpses were exposed to the elements, and to local vultures, until the bones were picked clean and bleached. The bones were then collected and placed in lime pits called ossuaries. Dakhmas have been illegal in Iran since the 1970s. Today, many Zoroastrians bury their dead beneath concrete slabs, but some Parsi in India still practice sky burials. A dakhma remains in operation near Mumbai, India.
Zoroastrianism flourished during three great Persian Empires. The first was the Achaemenian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great (circa 585-529 BCE). He established an empire that extended from Asia Minor in the west to India in the east, and from Armenia in the north to Egypt in the south. Cyrus showed great respect for the nations he had conquered. He allowed them to govern themselves and to maintain their traditional religious beliefs. When he invaded Babylon, he permitted its Jewish captives to return to their homeland and provided them with resources to rebuild a less costly version of the Jewish temple which had been razed by the Babylonians. For these noble deeds, Cyrus is mentioned in the Old Testament (Isaiah 45.1-3) as the Anointed One. Many scholars believe that Zoroastrian theology and eschatology absorbed in Persia by the repatriated Jewish captives significantly influenced post-exile Judaism.
The Achaemenians had constant conflict with the Greeks in the west of their empire. Darius, a successor of Cyrus, dispatched 600 ships and a large land force to capture Athens. The Achaemenians were on the Plain of Marathon, and their ships were to sneak towards Athens and surprise the city. When the Greeks heard of the Persians' plan, they sent one of their runners, Phillippe, to Athens to warn the citizens there. The distance from Marathon to Athens was 26 miles and this run has been immortalized in the Marathon races held all over the world. The Persians had to withdraw from that battle.
The Achaemenian Empire ended with the rise of Alexander, who in 334 BCE conquered Persia, plundered the treasury, and burned the libraries in Persepolis. Many of the priests were killed, and these priests were considered to be the living libraries of the religion, since they had committed to memory most of the sacred texts. Alexander is thought of as "the Great" by the Greeks, Egyptians, and others but is known as "the Accursed" by the Persians. Alexander died young, and the Greek-based Seleucid Empire, which succeeded him, lasted a relatively short time.
About 250 BCE, the Parthian tribe from northeast Iran overthrew the Greeks and established an empire that was just as extensive as the Achaemenian Empire. The Parthians were Zoroastrians, but they tolerated the religious beliefs of conquered lands. The Parthian Empire continually warred with the Romans. The Roman Empire extended to Scotland in the west, but in the east expansion was blocked by the Parthians. The Romans never embraced Zoroastrianism, but some Romans (principally soldiers) practiced Mithraism, a cult that worshipped the ancient deities Mithra and Anahita. The Romans established Mithraic temples throughout the western part of their empire, many of which are still standing today. The Mithra of Rome, however, barely resembled the Mithra of the Zoroastrians. During the five-hundred-year span of the Parthian Empire, Zoroastrianism was unregulated, so divergent forms of the religion developed.
To counteract, in part, the corrupted state of Zoroastrianism, the Sasanians (who were also Zoroastrians) revolted against the Parthians and overthrew them in 225 CE. The Sasanians wanted to unify Zoroastrianism and to recover and consolidate its doctrines. A High Priest was established who was second to the King in authority. Zoroastrianism became the state religion of the Empire. Conversions were actively pursued to counteract the proselytizing zeal of its principal competitor, Christianity. This missionary activity transformed Zoroastrianism from an ethnic religion into one that possessed universal appeal.
The Sasanian Empire endured until 641 CE, when the Arabs invaded Persia and established Islam. The new regime offered the conquered population three choices: conversion to Islam, payment of a heavy tax imposed on nonbelievers (the Jizya tax), or death. The Arabs persecuted the Zoroastrians who chose not to convert to Islam. Consequently, in 936 CE, a group of Zoroastrians from the town of Sanjan in the Khorasan Province of Iran journeyed south to the port of Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. They took ship for India. After passing nineteen years on the island of Div, they made their final landfall on the western coast of Gujerat. These immigrants to India became known as the Parsis ("those from the Persian province of Pars"). The Parsis prospered in Gujerat, and later began to migrate to other parts of India. They especially prospered after the British colonized India.
Zoroastrians who remained in Iran under Islam continued to suffer persecution. When the prosperous Parsis of India learned of the plight of their coreligionists, they delegated emissaries to Iran, most notably Maneckji Hataria, in 1854. Hataria spent many years in Iran, rebuilding educational and religious institutions and assisting the Iranian Zoroastrian community to regain its social standing. In 1882, he succeeded in persuading the Islamic Qajar King to abolish the burdensome and punitive Jizya tax. Currently, the Zoroastrian community in Iran is thriving. Within the past few decades, there has been an emigration of Zoroastrians from Iran and India to the Western world. These two communities are now united, attend the same fire temples, intermarry, and live in harmony.
