Hinduism

Most forms of Hinduism worship a single deity, known as Brahman, but other god and goddesses are also recognized. Hindus believe in the doctrines of samsara, the continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation, and karma, the universal law of cause and effect. One of the central concepts of Hinduism is atman, or the belief that humans possess a soul, and that every soul is a part of the supreme soul. Individual souls aspire to achieve moksha, or salvation, which will end the cycle of continual rebirths. Once moksha is attained, the souls can merge with the absolute soul.

People’s actions and thoughts directly determine the circumstances of their current life, their future lives, and how long the cycles of rebirth must continue. Living a good life hastens moksha. Living a less than good life delays it. Dharma is a code of living that advocate good conduct and morality. A person’s customized dharma is determined by the position in society they are born into, and the duties associated with it. This belief has, traditionally, helped to preserve and perpetuate Hindi culture. Non-Hindus designate it the “caste system.” Upward or downward social mobility is possible, of course, but only after rebirth and not within the bounds of a single lifespan. There are four main social positions, or varna: Brahmins (priests and teachers), Kshatriyas (rulers and soldiers), Vaishyas (merchants), and Shudras (workers).

There are four ideal stages of life described in Hindu scriptures, although for most Hindu people these represent a metaphorical path, and not a literal path: (1) Brahmacharya, or student, (2) Grihastha, or householder, (3) Vanaprashta, a shift from family obligations to selfless service and the pursuit of moksha , and, finally (4), Sannyasa, renunciation of all to become a wandering holy man.

The considerable body of Hindu writings, the Vedas, are among oldest religious texts on earth. They are regarded by Hindus as sacred and incontrovertible. Veda means knowledge or wisdom. Vedas contains basic knowledge that touches every aspect of life. They are grouped into four volumes: Rig Veda, believed to be the oldest portion, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda. Each volume consists of four parts:

Samhitas: a collection of prayers, mantras, and benedictions.

Brahmanas: a collection of commentaries on the ritual.

Aranyakas: theologies.

Upanishads: philosophical narratives and dialogues. The fundamental teachings of Hinduism, which form the foundation of all its different sects, are found in this concluding portion of the Vedas, the Vedanta. 

Scholars believe that Hinduism originated between 2300 BC and 1500 BC. Around 1500 BC, the Indo-Aryan people migrated to the Indus Valley. Their language and culture blended with that of the indigenous population. The period when the Vedas were created lasted from about 1500 BC to 500 BC, the Vedic Period. Sacrifices and chanting were common. The Epic, Puranic and Classic Periods took place between 500 BC and 500 AD. Hindus began to emphasize the worship of deities, especially Vishnu, Shiva and Devi, and the concept of dharma was introduced.

All beings and all things are in essence a part of the absolute soul, full of peace, joy, and wisdom, united with God. Hindus practice Yoga to to purify and refine the mind and senses to establish a connection with the greater, all-embracing essence. God's manifestation in creation goes by many names, and a special relationship goes with each name. God can also manifest as an extraordinary being in human form, who is then known as an incarnation of God. The one infinite God is presented in different ways, all these manifestations can be prayed to for help and protection. This is the underlying principle behind all the different sects of Hinduism. Those who prefer a particular manifestation will form a sect devoted to its contemplation and worship.

What determines if a Hindu will advance or decline when they are reincarnated? What is the gold standard that allows a Hindu to achieve moksha, to be freed from samsara, the cycle of continual birth and rebirth?  The Mahabharata, estimated to have been completed by about the 4th century AD, is the source for information about the origin of the Varna system. Two contradictory models are provided.

The first describes Varna as color-coded system. The sage Bhrigu writes, "Brahmins Varna was white, Kshtriyas was red, Vaishyas was yellow, and the Shudras' black." Another sage, Bharadwaja, disagrees with Bhrigu, writing that these colors are common to every Varna, as are states of desire, anger, fear, greed, grief, anxiety, hunger, and toil. The Mahabharata reveals that there is no fundamental distinction between Varnas. The whole universe is Brahman since it was created by Brahma. Varnas, or distinctions, arose because of the good and less good actions of the individuals who exhibit their distinctive attributes.

A second explanation of how the Varnas arose is behavior-based. Those who were inclined to anger, pleasures and boldness attained the Kshatriya (Kings and warriors) Varna. Those who were inclined to cattle rearing and raising crops attained the Vaishyas (farmers originally but evolved to include the merchant class). Those who were fond of violence, covetousness and impurity attained the Shudras (laborers). What is currently regarded as standing at the apex of the social pyramid, the Brahmins (priests and teachers), were those who led lives dedicated to truth, austerity, and pure conduct.

Dharma-sastra texts prescribe thoughts and deeds will purify people or contribute to their impurity. Constituents of all four varnas either rise or fall based on the content of their character, their ethical intent, their actions, and correct or incorrect adherence to Vedic stipulations and ritual. Relative degrees of purity or impurity were not originally attached to any of the four varnas, only to individuals. The modern Indian caste system, however, positions the varnas in hierarchical order. Untouchables (arvana) are excluded from this order because of sins committed in previous lives. Unrighteous and unethical people become outcaste, whatever the varna they may have been born into. Foreigners are also outcasts.