Chinese Traditional Religion

Traditional Chinese religion and philosophy can be based on a variety of sources. Only a minority of contemporary Chinese define themselves as adherents of homogeneous Confucianism or Taoism, or of the more heterogenous folk religions, but the majority holds beliefs or engages in practices derived from them. Buddhism originated in India but has influenced other Chinese belief systems. Confucianism, Taoism, folk religions, and Buddhism are often blended in an individual’s spiritual and philosophical attitudes. Distinctions among them are thought to be insignificant and irrelevant. Confucian teachings on ancestor veneration are a common denominator and are incorporated into other spiritual traditions. The Buddhist Ullambana Festival and Taoist Zhongyuan Festival both occur every year in Lunar July, a time when ghosts (including deceased ancestors) are believed to visit the living. Both festivals contain rituals in which ancestral spirits are honored and rescued from their suffering.

Folk beliefs and practices incorporate Confucian, Buddhist and Taoist concepts and augment these with distinctly folk religious elements. For example, popular folk deity goddess of mercy Guanyin was originally the Buddhist avatar Avalokiteśvara, a bodhisattva of compassion usually depicted as genderless or male. In Chinese folk religion, Guanyin is transformed into a goddess who answers all prayers, including requests for wealth, health, good fortune and giving birth to a male child. Historically, Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism were designated the “Three Teachings,” which gained more support from more educated Chinese and political authorities. Intellectuals and leaders regarded traditional folk religious elements as illegitimate and unorthodox.

In the wake of the Cultural Revolution, ancient Chinese religion began to revive in China. Millions of temples were rebuilt or built from scratch. In the 1980s the central government instituted a hands-off policy regarding rural community life. Local government's new regulatory relationship with local society is now based on practical mutual dependence. Some local governments have even displayed positive attitude towards indigenous religion as a means of promoting Chinese cultural heritage. Rather than contributing to the demise of traditional ancient religion, China and Taiwan's explosive growth in economic and technological industrialization and development has been attended by the spiritual renewal of their inhabitants.

Confucianism is a philosophy, an ethical system, a political blueprint, a scholarly tradition, and a template that has patterned the lives of billions of Chinese for thousands of years. It advocates reverence for ancestors and promotes rituals that contribute to a cohesive social order. Chinese (aa well as many other East Asians) may identify themselves as Shintōists, Daoists, Buddhists, Muslims, or Christians, but by doing so they do not cease to be Confucians.

Confucianism is a way of life proposed and propagated by Confucius in the 6th–5th century. The theory and practice of Confucian patterns governmental, societal, educational, and familial organization and relationships. Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, cannot be compared to Buddha as the founder of Buddhism or Jesus Christ as the founder of Christianity. Rather, Confucius was a scholar and polemicist who consciously and purposefully labored to reanimate older traditions to establish a new tradition that would overcome the anarchy and incessant warfare of the world he was born into. He proposed revitalizing the meaning of the past by advocating a ritualized life. Confucius was motivated by his desire to understand why certain forms of living and institutions such as reverence for ancestors, human-centered religious practices, and mourning ceremonies had survived for centuries. He recognized that humanity’s deepest need is for belonging and communicating. Although ancient and venerable traditions had become neglected in his era, Confucius believed that these held the potential for the future regeneration of his homeland. He was a scholar with access to extensive governmental archives. After much study and contemplation he came to regard the civilization of the Western Zhou dynasty as a model to be emulated.

Confucius did not establish a religion, but rather a cultural process known in the West as Confucianism. He and those who followed him regarded themselves as advocates of a tradition that had its origins two thousand years earlier when legendary sages Yao and Shun created a civilization not through force of arms, but by moral persuasion. Yao and his immediate successor Shun were legendary sage-rulers who believed that rulers should be selected based on their competence. Shun was not related to Yao, and neither was Yao’s successor Yu. Yu ended this experiment in meritocracy to become the founder of the Xia Dynasty, thought to be the first hereditary dynasty in China. Paradoxically, Shun is regarded as a symbol of filial piety despite having displaced Yao's son from the succession. Shun personifies the conflict between the rule by the virtuous and rule by hereditary right. In the manner of Plato’s Philosopher Kings, a virtuous ruler should, ideally, appoint a sage rather than an heir as his successor. China, under Confucian influences, later came to resemble both a meritocracy and a hereditary kingdom. Emperors reigned, but court bureaucrats ruled.

As noted, Confucius’s ideal was the Western Zhou dynasty. Its founder, Zhougong, consolidated, expanded, and refined preexisting feudal ritual systems. These systems were based on blood ties, marriage alliances, old covenants, as well as newer contracts. The appeal to cultural values and social norms for the preservation of foreign and domestic order is based on a shared political vision. All authority resides in a universal kingship that is endowed with ethical and religious power by the mandate of heaven. Social solidarity is achieved not by legal constraints, but by ritual observances. The implementation of this plan enabled the Western Zhou dynasty to endure in relative peace and prosperity for more than five centuries.

The Zhou kings held control of their kingdom for several centuries but in 771 BCE they were forced to move their capital eastward to avoid barbarian attackers from Central Asia. Real power thereafter passed into the hands of feudal lords. The surviving line of the Zhou kings continued to exercise a diminishing degree of symbolic control. By Confucius’s time, the feudal ritual system had become so undermined that a political dissolution was attended by a decline in morals. Centuries of civil war had led to the consolidation of China into fourteen feudal states. Confucius, without success, tried to attach himself as sage and advisor to several of these states. He was unable to implement his political dream in his lifetime. Nevertheless, due to the influence of his followers, his conception of political order based on moral persuasion became increasingly influential in the centuries that followed.

Confucius’s reaction to the moral decline was an attempt to humanize his fellow Chinese by redefining and revitalizing institutions that had, for centuries, been the bedrock of political stability and social order: family, school, local community, state, and kingdom. Confucius did not approve of the idea that wealth and power exerted the greatest influence on a society. He believed that virtue was essential as a personal attribute and for the leaders of the people. Confucius’s Analects, compiled by his disciples, can be regarded as the sacred scripture of Confucianism 

The Analects are not merely a collection of random and unrelated reflections randomly put together. Instead, it can be compared to a communal memory composed by beneficiaries of the Confucian Way that preserves their memory of the Master and establishes an effective enduring Chinese tradition. The content of the Analects reveals Confucius’s ambitions, his fears, his joys, his commitments, and most importantly, his self-knowledge.

The community of followers that Confucius created included men of different ages and backgrounds from different states. They shared his vision and participated in his mission to bring moral order to a fragmented and fallen world. This could be difficult and, at times, dangerous. Confucius himself experienced joblessness, homelessness, starvation, and sometimes violence, yet he convinced his followers, as well as himself, that heaven smiled upon their efforts.

As an instructor of humanity, Confucius stated his intention, “To bring comfort to the old, to have trust in friends, and to cherish the young.” Confucius’s vision of the way to develop a moral community began with a pragmatic assessment of the human condition rather than abstract speculations. His mission was to restore trust in government and to transform society into a moral community by instilling a sense of humanity in politics and society. Confucius taught that cultivation of the self is the root of social order. A well-ordered society is the foundation for political stability and lasting peace.

Despite some initial setbacks, Confucian tradition emerged as the most powerful, enduring, and cohesive force in Chinese history. Mencius was an effective evangelist for the Confucian Way. He was a social critic, a moral philosopher, and a political activist. He argued that cultivating a class of scholar-officials who would not be directly involved in agriculture, industry, and commerce was important for the well-being of the state. He used the idea of the division of labor to defend those who labor with their intellect. Mencius advocated that Confucians assume the responsibility of teaching the ruling minority humane government and made it clear that a humanized individual, be they king or commoner, cannot be corrupted by wealth, subdued by power, or affected by poverty. Like Confucius, Mencius regarded the family as the natural basis for every larger social organization. Excessive concerns with self-interest could only lead to political disorder.

Mencius’s advocacy of the common bond among all people as the basis of good government was drawn from his populist sense that the people are more important than the state and that the state is more important than the king. A ruler who does not act in accordance with the kingly way is unfit to rule. Mencius taught that unfit rulers should be criticized, rehabilitated, and, as a last resort, deposed. He wrote that “heaven sees as the people see; heaven hears as the people hear.” Revolution, the reassignment of the mandate of heaven, is not only justifiable at times, but is a moral imperative.

While Mencius recognized the role of biological and environmental factors in shaping (typically for the worse) the human condition, he insisted that human beings can become moral beings simply by willing to be so. The better angels of our nature are activated whenever we decide to place Confucian virtues in the forefront of our consciousness. Mencius taught that all people have the spiritual resources to deepen their self-awareness and to strengthen their bonds with others, the freedom and the ability to refine and expand their heaven-endowed nobility. The process of continuous growth and refinement is evident in Mencius’s description of the degrees of excellence:

“Those who are admirable are called good (shan). Those who are sincere are called true (xin). Those who are totally genuine are called beautiful (mei). Those who radiate this genuineness are called great (da). Those whose greatness transforms are called sagely (sheng). Those whose sageliness is unfathomable are called spiritual (shen).”

Mencius’s principal adversary, Xunzi, attacked Mencius’s view that human nature is good as being naïve and far too optimistic. Xunzi believed that human nature is evil. People are prone by nature to seek the gratification of their passions and therefore require clearly articulated social constraints. Ritual and authority are essential for the well-being of society. For Xunzi, as for Confucius before him, becoming moral is harder work than Mencius made it appear to be. Like Mencius, Xunzi believed in the perfectibility of all human beings through self-cultivation, in humanity and rightness as cardinal virtues, in humane government as the kingly way, in social harmony, and in education. But his view of how these goals could be achieved was opposed to that of Mencius. Xunzi taught that socialization requires the authority of ancient sages, the classical tradition, conventional societal norms, teachers, governmental rules and regulations, and politicians. A cultured person is a fully socialized member of the human community who has successfully suppressed his intrinsically evil nature for the sake of the public good.

Xunzi was important to the continuation of Confucianism as a scholarly endeavor. His naturalistic interpretation of tian (an ancient Chinese term for heaven and a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and religion), his sophisticated knowledge of culture, his insightful observations on the objective, observable facets of the human mind and the social function of language, his focus on moral reasoning, his belief in progress, and his interest in political institutions enriched the Confucian heritage to the extent that his writings were influential for centuries after his death.

The prime minister of Han dynasty emperor Wudi (141–87 BCE), Gongsun Hong (died 121 BCE) persuaded Wudi to announce that Confucianism was now an officially recognized imperial ideology and state cult. As a result, classic Confucian texts became the core curriculum at every level of education. In 136 BCE, Wudi introduced to the court five Erudites of the Five Classics. Eight years later Wudi assigned fifty official students to study with them, creating a de facto imperial university. By 50 BCE enrollment at the university had grown to 3,000, and by year 1 a hundred students a year were entering government service by passing examinations administered by the state. Graduates with a thorough Confucian education began to staff the bureaucracy. In the year 58, all government schools were required to make sacrifices to Confucius. In 175, after decades of scholarly deliberation, an approved version of the Classics was completed and carved upon large stone tablets. This act of making permanent and public the content of the sacred scriptures marks the completion of the classical and canonical Confucian tradition.

The spirit behind the establishment of the core curriculum for Confucian education, the Five Classics, was ecumenical. Material that preceded the era of Confucius was included. The Five Classics can be described in terms of five visions: metaphysical, political, poetic, social, and historical.

The metaphysical vision, expressed in the Yijing or Book of Changes, or Classic of Changes (popularized in the West under the title I Ching), was originally a divination manual in the Western Zhou period (1000–750 BC). Over the course of the Warring States and early imperial periods (500–200 BC), it was transformed into a cosmological text, the Zhou Yi, augmented by a series of philosophical commentaries known as the Ten Wings.  It became one of the Five Classics in the 2nd century BCE. The Yijing has become the basis for divination practice for centuries throughout the Far East and the subject of much scholarly commentary. For the past few centuries, it has had an influential role in Western understanding of Eastern philosophy. According to the Yijing, the cosmos is a great transformation shaped by the constant interaction of yin and yang, two complementary (as well as conflicting) qi, or life forces. The world, which emerges from this continual transformation, thus exhibits both unity and dynamism. An exemplary human being, inspired by the harmony and creativity of the cosmos, must emulate the broader pattern by ceaseless self-exertion to achieve the highest ideal, tianrenheyi (unity of man and heaven). An ancient commentary on the Zhou yi describes Confucius as endorsing it as a source of wisdom but a less than perfect divination text second. After the Zhou yi and supplementary Ten Wings became canonized by Emperor Wu of Han together with the original I Ching as the Zhou Yi these writings attained a position of influence on the Confucians working for the government.[52] Furthermore, the Ten Wings includes phrases such as "the master said," which is common in the Analects which implies the involvement of Confucians in its creation.

The political vision, contained in the Shujing, or Book of Documents, describes proper kingship as the ethical foundation for humane government. The legendary Three Emperors (Yao, Shun, and Yu) all ruled by virtue. Their sagacity, xiao (filial piety), and devotion to work permitted them to create a political climate based on responsibility and trust. Their exemplary reigns taught and encouraged the people to enter into a covenant with them. Social harmony could be realized without punishment or coercion. Even in the Three Dynasties (Xia, Shang, and Zhou) moral authority, as expressed through ritual, was sufficient in itself to maintain political order. Every degree of humanity formed an organic whole that was an integral part of the great cosmic transformation. Confucian politics requires moral persuasion. The responsibility of government is not just to maintain order. It must also properly educate its citizens.

The poetic vision, contained in the Shijing, or Book of Songs, contains 305 works dating from the 11th to 7th centuries BCE. These emphasize the Confucian valuation of common human feelings. The content can be divided into two main sections: the Airs of the States, and the Eulogies and Hymns. The verses voice the emotions and sentiments of communities and people from every level of society. The Airs of the States are shorter lyrics in simple language that are generally ancient folk songs which record the voice of the common people. They describe love and courtship, longing for an absent lover, soldiers on campaign, farming and housework, and political satire and protest. Poems in the two Hymns sections and the Eulogies section are longer ritual or sacrificial songs, typically in the form of courtly panegyrics or dynastic hymns which laud the founders of the Zhou dynasty. Also included are hymns used in sacrificial rites and songs used by the aristocracy in their sacrificial ceremonies or banquets. Confucius comments upon the anthology in a manner that indicates that he held it in great esteem. A story in the Analects recounts a story told by Confucius' son Kong Li: "The Master once stood by himself, and I hurried to seek teaching from him. He asked me, 'You've studied the Odes?' I answered, 'Not yet.' He replied, 'If you have not studied the Odes, then I have nothing to say.'"

The social vision, contained in the Liji, or Book of Rites, shows society not as an adversarial system based on contractual relationships but as a community of trust with an emphasis on communication. Society is broadly grouped into four functional occupations who must cooperate with each other: the scholar, the farmer, the artisan, and the merchant. Every person is obligated to recognize the existence of others and to serve the public good. It is the king’s duty to act in a kingly manner and it is the father’s duty to be fatherly. If either kings or fathers fail to behave properly, they cannot expect their ministers or children to behave properly. Confucius described Li, or rites, or rules of conduct as all traditional forms that provide a standard of behavior. This term has come to be associated with good form, decorum, or politeness. Confucius believed that Li should emphasize the spirit of piety and respect for others through rules of conduct and ceremonies as a countermeasure to the turmoil of the collapsing Zhou state and declared, "Of all things to which the people owe their lives the rites are the most important..."

The historical vision, presented in the Chunqiu, or Spring and Autumn Annals, emphasizes the significance of collective memory for communal self-identification. Historical consciousness is a defining characteristic of Confucian thought. The Annals is the official chronicle of the State of Lu and covers a 241-year period (from 722 to 481 BCE). It is the earliest surviving Chinese historical text to be arranged in annals form. According to Mencius, it was compiled by Confucius, so it was included as one of the Five Classics of Chinese literature. By defining himself as a lover of antiquity and a transmitter of its values, Confucius made it explicit that a sense of history is necessary for self-knowledge. Confucius’s emphasis on the importance of history was in a way his reappropriation of the ancient Chinese concept that reviving the old is the best means of attaining the new. Confucius was the first to apply moral judgment to political events in China, assigning ultimate historical praise and blame to its most powerful and influential political actors. This innovation was widely imitated by others who wrote dynastic histories in imperial China.

China was first united by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BCE. A few years later China entered its classical era with the Han dynasty (206 BCE – CE 220). The Chinese empire expanded vastly during this period. Confucianism was officially sanctioned, and its core texts were edited into their received form, the Five Books. When the Han imperial order eventually collapsed after four centuries, China entered an equally long period of disunity during which Buddhism began to make an impact on Chinese culture.

The entry of Buddhism into China and the subsequent Chinese transformation of Buddhism lasted for at least six centuries. Since Buddhist ideas were introduced to China via Taoist categories, and since the development of the Taoist religion benefited from having Buddhist institutions and practices as models, the spiritual dynamics in medieval China were predominately characterized by Buddhist and Taoist values. The reemergence of Confucianism as the leading intellectual force thus required both a creative response to the Buddhist and Taoist challenge and an imaginative reappropriation of classical Confucian insights. The Tang dynasty (618-907) was a golden age of Chinese civilization, a prosperous, stable, and creative period with significant developments in culture, art, literature, poetry, and technology. Buddhism was the predominant religion of the common people. During the late Tang period the empire was plagued by recurring revolts of its regional military governors. Scholar-officials engaged in fierce factional strife and corrupted eunuchs amassed immense power. After the collapse of the Tang dynasty, the grave threats to the survival of Chinese culture from hostile neighbors prompted scholarly Chinese to protect their threatened common heritage by deepening their communal critical self-awareness. To enrich their personal knowledge, and to preserve China as a civilization-state, they undertook to revive the symbolic and spiritual resources that had, in the past, made Confucianism a sustainable living tradition.

The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song dynasties, the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, spanned from 907 to 960. During this half-century China was a multi-state system. In 960 the Song dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu. By 979, the Song dynasty had reunified most of China proper. Large segments of the outer territories were occupied by nomadic empires which had embraced Chinese culture. The Khitan Liao dynasty ruled Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of Northern China from 907 to 1125. From 1032 to 1227 the Tangut tribes founded the Western Xia dynasty in northwestern China. The Song dynasty experienced great advancements in science and technology thanks to innovative scholar-officials. By the mid-to-late 13th century, the Chinese had adopted the dogma of Neo-Confucian philosophy as formulated by Zhu Xi. The Song dynasty came to an abrupt end following a devastating Mongol invasion and conquest.

The Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) commenced when the Great Khan of Mongol, a grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan assumed the additional title of Emperor of China. The capital of Yuan dynasty was established at Khanbaliq, modern-day Beijing. The Yuan dynasty was the first ancient economy where paper currency was used as the predominant medium of exchange. Its unrestricted issuance in the late Yuan dynasty created hyperinflation which eventually led to its collapse. While the Mongols controlled China the class of scholar officials and intellectuals, traditional torchbearers of Chinese culture, lost substantial social status. The Ming dynasty (1368-1684) was founded when Zhu Yuanzhang, a descendant of peasants rather than of aristocrats, proclaimed himself to be the Hongwu Emperor. Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism, China under the Mings increased its trade and contacts with foreigners substantially. Merchants explored the entire Indian Ocean, even reaching East Africa with the voyages of Zheng He. In 1449 Esen Tayisi led an Oirat Mongol invasion of northern China which culminated in the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor at Tumu. Afterward, the Ming went on the defensive on their northern frontier. The Great Wall was built. The Ming became increasingly isolationist. Voyages which sailed the Indian Ocean were discontinued, and Chinese were prohibited from sailing abroad. European traders who reached China during the Age of Discovery were denied their requests to engage in trade.

The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) was the last imperial dynasty in China. Founded by the Manchus, it was the second conquest dynasty to rule the entirety of China proper, double the territory controlled by the Ming. The Manchus originated from lands north of the Great Wall and emerged as the major threat to the late Ming dynasty after Nurhaci united all Jurchen tribes and his son, Hong Taiji, declared the founding of the Qing dynasty (1636-1912). The early Manchu emperors combined traditions of Inner Asian rule with Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government and are therefore regarded as being a legitimate Chinese dynasty. By the end of Qianlong Emperor's long reign in 1796, the Qing Empire was at its zenith. The Qing ruled more than one-third of the world's population and had the largest economy in the world. In terms of geographical area, it was one of the largest empires in world history. In the 19th century the empire was experiencing internal turmoil and external pressure. Defeat by the British Empire in the First Opium War (1840) led to the Treaty of Nanking (1842) which ceded Hong Kong to Britain. The import of opium, produced by British territories, was permitted which undermined Chinese societal stability. Even after the fall of the Qing dynasty, further military defeats and unequal treaties with other western powers continued to erode Chinese dignity and power.

In the summer of 1900, the Boxer Uprising opposed foreign influence and murdered Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries. Doomed to fail, a treaty with the West, the Boxer Protocol ended the war and exacted a tremendous indemnity. The Qing court instituted "New Policies" of administrative and legal reform, including the abolition of the examination system. But young officials, military officers, and students inspired by intellectuals like Liang Qichao and the revolutionary ideas of Sun Yat-sen contemplated possible reforms such as a constitutional monarchy or the overthrow of the dynasty and creation of a republic. The provisional government of the Republic of China was formed on March 12, 1912. Sun Yat-sen became its first president but he turned power over to Yuan Shikai, commander the New Army. Yuan began to abolish the national and provincial assemblies and in 1915 declared himself as the emperor. Yuan's death in 1916 left a power vacuum and the Republic collapsed. Intellectuals, disappointed in the failure of the Republic, launched the New Culture Movement. Political and intellectual activity gained strength throughout the 1920s and 1930s.

In the 1920s Sun Yat-sen set out to unite a fragmented nation. He sought and obtained assistance from the Soviet Union and established an alliance with the newly formed Chinese Communist Party. After Sun's death in 1925, his protégé Chiang Kai-shek seized control of the Nationalist Party and was able to bring most of south and central China under its rule. In 1927, Chiang turned on his communist allies and relentlessly purged them from his government. In 1934, Chinese communist forces embarked upon the Long March across some of China's most desolate terrain to the northwest where they established a guerrilla base at Yan'an. During the march, the communists reorganized under a new leader, Mao Zedong. A civil war between the Nationalists and the Communists continued, openly or covertly, throughout the 14-year Japanese occupation of portions of China. Following the defeat of Japan in 1945, the war between the Nationalist government forces and the communists resumed. By 1949, Mao Zedong and his comrades had established control over most of the country. Chiang’s Nationalist government retreated to Taiwan along with its forces and supporters. During the Cold War era and up until the early 1970s, Chiang’s Republic of China was recognized as the sole legitimate government of China by the United Nations, the United States and most Western nations. This changed in 1971 when the Peoples Republic of China was seated in the United Nations, replacing the Republic of China.

This digression into the history of China, in varying degrees, describes Confucianism as persisting as an influence throughout the past few millennia. It will end with a paragraph drawn from a recent article published in The Economist. “For much of its history, Chinese society has been built upon the pillars of Confucianism. Confucius is thought to have been born in 551 BC in what is now Shandong province on China’s east coast. The most famous work associated with him, The Analects, is a collection of his aphorisms, taken down by his disciples and published after his death in 479 BC. Over time his principles became associated with traditional Chinese values, such as an orderly society, deference towards elders and respect for (and by) benevolent rulers. For centuries, civil servants had to pass a grueling exam based on the sishu, the four Confucian texts. His ideas fell out of favor during the 20th century. But they are enjoying a resurgence under Xi Jinping, China’s leader since 2012.”

Taoism maintains that the entire universe and everything in it flows with an enigmatic and unknowable force called the Tao, translated literally as The Way. Tao is a name that describes ultimate reality. Tao also designates the powers that drive the universe as well as the intricacies of human nature. Taoists believe that, despite appearances, everything is truly one thing. Perceptions of good and evil or truth and falsehood only occur when people forget that they are all one in the Tao. Therefore, it is the aim of Taoists to remain aware of this oneness. Semi-mythical founder Lao-tzu cautioned his followers that the Tao is so difficult to understand that "the Tao that can be spoken is not the true Tao."

A Taoist religion evolved that differs somewhat from Taoist philosophy. Religious Taoism preserves many of the same beliefs that philosophical Taoism promotes but also calls for the worship of a multitude of gods and ancestors. This practice began during the Shang dynasty. Other religious practices include the cultivation of bodily energy called "chi," the promulgation of a moral code, and the use of alchemy to gain immortality. The religious derivative of Taoism became widespread after it was adopted as the state religion in 440. It continues to be practiced in China to the present-day. While Confucianism deals with concrete social concerns, Taoism focuses on the search for meaning. The essence of Confucianism is that rules and rituals are needed to improve the lives of degenerate humanity. The essence of Taoism is believing that a natural harmony between heaven and earth exists which can be discovered by anyone. Both influential Chinese systems share common beliefs about man, society, and the universe, but these beliefs predate the foundation of both Taoism and Confucianism. Both began as philosophies. Both later acquired religious overtones.

Both of two most influential homegrown Chinese religious/philosophical systems, Taoism and Confucianism, share common beliefs about man, society, and the universe. These beliefs predate their foundation. Both began as philosophies. Both later acquired religious overtones. 

The Tao Te Ching, or “The Way and Its Power,” is a collection of writings and poems from the third and fourth centuries BCE that guides Taoist thoughts and deeds. For cultural and political reasons, authorship is attributed to philosopher Lao Tzu, but there is little evidence that Lao Tzu ever existed. The content of the Tao Te Ching was written by many authors. This book’s origin was linked to prestigious philosopher Lao Tzu who had been elevated to godlike, legendary stature.

Ch’i, or qi, is the energy present in and guiding everything in the universe. The Tao Te Ching and other Taoist books provide guidance for behaviors and spiritual modes of living that harmonize with this energy. Taoists, however, do not believe that this energy as a god. The gods that are part of Taoist beliefs have been incorporated into Taoism from various Chinese cultures. These gods, like every other living entity, are a part of the Tao. Taoism has temples, monasteries, and priests who make offerings, meditate, and perform other rituals on the behalf their communities.

One of the main ideas of Taoism is the belief in the balancing forces of yin and yang. These opposing but complementary forces are analogous to light and dark, hot and cold, action and inaction, and work in tandem to generate a universal whole. The concept of yin and yang posits that everything in the universe is connected to something else. Nothing makes sense if it is isolated.

Taoism was broadly popularized in the eighth century due to it being the preferred religion of the Tang dynasty. In the following centuries it existed alongside Buddhism and Confucianism. After the Communist takeover in 1949, Taoism, Confucianism, and all other religions were banned resulting in a decline in the practice of Taoism in China. Taoism continues to thrive in Taiwan. Recent reforms in China have increased the number of Chinese Taoists.

The Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi (which consists of stories and maxims that exemplify an ideal Taoist sage) are both foundational texts for the philosophical and religious forms of Taoism. These have had a significant influence on other schools of philosophy and religion throughout the long history of China, including Legalism, Confucianism, and, especially, Chinese Buddhism whose interpretation predominately used Taoist terminology when it was originally introduced to the Far East. The written style of the Te Tao Ching is laconic and encourages varied, contradictory interpretations. The ideas are singular, and the style is poetic, combining two major strategies: short, declarative statements and intentional contradictions. The first of these strategies creates memorable phrases, while the second forces the reader to attempt to reconcile apparent contradictions. American sinologist Victor H. Mair has proposed that Taoists during the formulation of the faith had positive cultural relations with Hindu groups. He believes that the Tao Te Ching was influenced by Indian philosophy and that Brahman was the model for Tao.

The Tao Te Ching was conceived to lead students to return to their natural state, one that is in harmony with Tao. The constraints of language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism describes these as inherently biased and artificial, providing many paradoxes that underscore this point. Wu wei, or non-action, or not acting, is a central concept of the Tao Te Ching. Definitions of wu wei are multifaceted and are reflected in the word’s multiple meanings.  Wu wei can be translated as not doing anything, not forcing, not acting (in the theatrical sense), creating nothingness, acting spontaneously, and flowing with the moment (going with the flow?). Wu wei is used as a means of explaining ziran, or harmony with the Tao. It asserts that value judgements are ideological, and personal ambition arises from ideologies. Tao Te Ching used the term broadly, with simplicity and humility promoted as essential virtues as opposed to selfish acts. On the political level, wu wei constrains leaders to avoid warfare, the enactment harsh laws, and from imposing heavy taxes. Some Taoists state a connection between wu wei and esoteric practices like zuowang (a classic Daoist meditation technique). The Zhuangzi describes zuowang as "sitting in oblivion, and emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought. This practice, of course, is not exclusive to Taoism. Buddhists, Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Jainists, Jews, and even Christians (who do not recite mantras to empty their The Tao Te Ching was conceived to lead students to return to their natural state, one that is in harmony with Tao. The constraints of language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism describes these as inherently biased and artificial and provides many paradoxes to emphasize this point.

Wu wei, or non-action, or not acting, is a central concept of the Tao Te Ching. Definitions of wu wei are multifaceted and are reflected in the word’s multiple meanings.  Wu wei can be translated as not doing anything, not forcing, not acting (in the theatrical sense), creating nothingness, acting spontaneously, and flowing with the moment. Wu wei is used as a means of explaining ziran, or harmony with the Tao. It asserts that value distinctions are derived from ideology, and that personal ambition (selfishness) derives from ideological constructs. The Tao Te Ching uses the term broadly. Simplicity and humility are promoted as cardinal virtues in opposition to selfish acts. On the political level, wu wei constrains leaders to avoid warfare, from enacting harsh laws, and from imposing heavy taxes. Some Taoists believe that a connection between wu wei and esoteric practices such as zuowang (a classic Daoist meditation technique). The Zhuangzi describes zuowang as “sitting in oblivion and emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought.” The practice of meditation, of course, is not exclusive to Taoism. Buddhists, Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Jainists, Jews, and even Christians (who choose not to recite mantras to more quickly purge their minds of stray thoughts) also meditate.

Ethnographer Vivienne Wee describes Chinese spirituality as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled with the contents of institutionalized religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism and Chinese syncretic religions.” This includes the veneration of shen (spirits), deities, and ancestors, exorcisms of demonic forces, belief in the rational order of nature and a balance in the universe that can be influenced by human beings and their rulers. Worship is directed to gods of places or natural phenomena, gods of human behavior, or even the patriarchs of families. Tales of the gods are collected into the vast corpus of Chinese mythology. By the era of the Song dynasty (960-1279), these practices had become blended with Buddhist doctrines and Taoist teachings to form popular religious systems which have persisted until present times. As previously noted, the current authoritarian government of mainland China, like the imperial dynasties, has recently decided to tolerate popular religious organizations if they bolster social stability, but is not hesitant to suppress or persecute those that they fear can potentially undermine it.

After the fall of the empire in 1911, governments and modernizing elites condemned feudal superstition and opposed or attempted to eradicate traditional religions to better promote modern values. By the late 20th century, however, these attitudes began to change both in mainland China and Taiwan. Chinese folk religion has come to be viewed in a positive light and traditional religious practices are experiencing a revival. Some have become recognized for their contribution towards the preservation of traditional Chinese culture like Mazuism, the Sanyi teaching in Fujian, Huangdi worship, and other forms of local worship like the Longwang, Pangu, and Caishen folk religions. Geomancy, acupuncture, and traditional Chinese medicine reflect ancient traditions. Geographical features, like the organs of the body are in alignment with the five elements (earth, fire, wood, water, and metal) and yin and yang.

Here is a detailed description of the qualities of and consequences of an imbalance between yin and yang. Yin symbolizes the feminine, internal aspects of the world and of human nature, the lower parts of the body, the North, darkness, cold temperatures, softness, and sleep and rest. Yang, yin’s compliment, and nemesis symbolizes the masculine, external aspects of the world and of human nature, the upper parts of the body, the South, light, hot temperatures, hardness, and action. In traditional Chinese medicine, diagnosing the specific malady a person was suffering from was based on identifying symptoms and noting them as either the product of unbalanced Yin or Yang. Stagnation of fluids, excess mucus production, feminine diseases, and illnesses associated with the lower part of the body and back such as kidney malfunction are all associated with an excess of yin. Health issues associated either with either an excess of Yang or a deficiency of Yin include fever, blockages, toxicity, overactive body systems, inflammation, pain, and the presence of gallstones and tumors.

Food is medicine. Definitions of yin imply a process of cooling and hydrating while yang implies heat and drying. Traditional Chinese medicine recognizes the therapeutical value of heating and cooling foods for the reestablishment of a balanced diet for sick, unbalanced souls. Yin foods are considered ideal for the summer. They increase hydration, have high levels of potassium to counteract the loss of minerals lost through sweating, and, in general, cool the body. These foods include fruits and vegetables, soy-based foodstuffs like tofu, light meats like fish, and plain cold water. Yang foods are better suited for winter since they accelerate metabolism. Included are heavier meats like beef, eggs, rice, oils, spices like ginger and cinnamon, and anything that is high in sodium or fat. Hot beverages like tea are also included.

Traditional Chinese medicine additionally strives to restore a proper balance between the five elements (earth, fire, wood, water, and metal) that comprise the force known as qi. Like yin and yang, qi can become imbalanced and thus create health problems. Rather than being associated with opposites like heat and cold or light and dark, qi exerts its influence within the body in the processes of transformation (metabolism), protection (integumentary and immune systems), and containment (bones, muscles, and connective tissue). An imbalance of earth can cause digestive issues like heartburn, fatigue, and allergic reactions. An imbalance of water can lead to problems with the bladder and kidneys. An imbalance of fire engenders heart conditions, insomnia, and anxiety. An imbalance of wood causes digestive issues, eye problems, migraines, substance addiction, and menstrual cycle anomalies. An imbalance of metals is the cause of allergies (as does an imbalance of earth), asthma, and chronic skin conditions.

Proper balance of the elements also includes consideration of concepts like time of day, directions on a compass, and other phenomena that characterize an environment. Feng Shui is a system of laws that ideally govern spatial arrangement and orientation to enhance the flow of qi. Potential favorable or unfavorable rates of flow are considered when buildings are designed and positioned on the landscape. The laws of Feng Shui are also applicable to the individual rooms of a dwelling. Correct Feng Shui contributes to the health and wellbeing of a home’s inhabitants.