Shintoism

Shinto translates as “way of the gods.” It is the oldest religion in Japan. Shinto highlights purity, harmony, family honor, and the subordination of the individual to the group. This faith has no founder, nor is there any major text which incorporates its principal beliefs. The flexibility of definitions of what Shinto is, or is not, has contributed to its longevity. Shinto has become so intertwined with mainstream Japanese culture that the two are practically inseparable. Shinto is intrinsic to the Japanese character, even if an individual does not claim to be affiliated with it.

The inhabitants of ancient Japan were animists, worshipped divine ancestors, and communicated with the spirit world through shamans. Some elements of these ancestral beliefs were incorporated into the first recognizable religion practiced in Japan, Shinto, which began during the period of the Yayoi culture (circa 300 BCE to 300 CE). Certain natural phenomena and geographical features were associated with divinities. Foremost amongst these are the sun goddess Amaterasu and the wind god Susanoo. Rivers and mountains were also important, particularly Mount Fuji, an active volcano located on the Japanese island of Honshu.

In Shinto the gods, spirits, supernatural forces, and divine essences are known as kami. Kami control nature in all of its forms and are believed to inhabit places of exceptional natural beauty. In contrast, evil spirits, or demons (oni) are predominately invisible. Some are envisioned as giants with horns and three eyes. Their power is usually only temporary, and they do not represent an inherently evil force. Ghosts are called obake. Certain rituals are required to rid people and places of obake before they can cause harm. The spirits of some deceased animals are able to possess humans, who must be exorcised by a priest.

Two chronicles, commissioned by Emperor Temmu (40th Emperor of Japan who reigned from 673 CE until his death in 686 CE), are valuable resources for information about Shinto mythology and beliefs. The Kojiki (Record of Ancient Things) was compiled in 712 CE by the court scholar Ono Yasumaro. He drew on earlier sources, mostly genealogies of powerful clans. The Nihon Shoki (Chronicle of Japan, also known as the Nihongi), written in 720 CE by a committee of court scholars was created to redress the favoritism many clans thought that the Kojiki displayed for the Yamato clan. The Nihon Shoki contains the first textual instance of the word Shinto. Both the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki describe the Age of the Gods, a time when the world was created by and was ruled by divine beings. After this era, humanity was left to rule itself. The imperial lineage is believed to be directly descended from the gods. The goddess Amaterasu's great-great-grandson, Jimmu Tenno, became the first emperor of Japan. Tradition places Jimmu's rulership as spanning from 660 BCE to 585 BCE, but this emperor is probably a mythological figure.

Another important source on early Shinto beliefs is the Manyoshu, or Collection of Ten-thousand Leaves, an anthology of poems on religious and other topics compiled in 760 CE. Other sources are the many local chronicles, or Fudoki, which were commissioned in 713 CE to document local kami and their associated legends in the various provinces of Japan, and the Engishiki, a collection of fifty books compiled in the 10th century CE containing the laws, rituals, and prayers of Shinto.

As is the case with most every other ancient religion, the Shinto gods represent important astrological, geographical, and meteorological phenomena which impact the daily lives of human beings. These gods, or ujigami, were attached to specific ancient clans, or uji. Unusually, but not uniquely, the sun and supreme deity, Amaterasu, is female.  Several variations on the Shinto creation myth exist. Most of these agree, however, that in the beginning the world was split into the heavens and the earth, then three kami deities of the heavenly realm came into being. The first reeds took root and sprouted. Two more kami deities were added to the pantheon. These first five kami deities were formless and had no partners. Afterward, pairs of partnered kami deities were born in succession. The seventh and final generation produced the male Izanagi no Mikoto and the female Izanami no Mikoto.

The land was not yet formed and loosely floated upon the water. Older deities commissioned Izanagi and Izanami to order the world and gave them a sacred spear to assist in this task. Standing on a bridge, the pair gazed upon the primordial mire and decided to try to stir it up. They thrust the sacred spear into it. When the spear was withdrawn, a drop fell from its tip which settled to form the first island, Onokoro Shima. Izanagi and Izanami descended from heaven to dwell on this island. They became aware of the differences in their bodies and decided to join themselves, subsequently giving birth to the country. They were married by circling a sacred post three times and stating their vows. Izanami spoke her vows first, but no progeny emerged. The two repeated the marriage ceremony, but the second time Izanagi spoke his vows first. This successful revision of the ritual resulted in the birth of the remainder of the islands of Japan, as well as to a host of other kami deities whose mission was to shape them. These kami were deities of the seas, the wind, the mountains, and of every other type of natural phenomena.

Regrettably, Izanami was mortally injured while giving birth to the fire kami. Izanagi mourned her loss and determined to travel to the land of the dead to retrieve her. By the time Izanagi arrived in the underworld and discovered Izanami, she had already eaten its food which made it impossible for her to rejoin the living. Izanagi pleaded with Izanami, and she ultimately agreed to petition the underworld deities that she be permitted to return to a realm that she and Izanagi were still in the process of forming. At Izanami’s request, Izanagi agreed to wait outside the chamber of the gods until she had finished making her request.

Izanami had been absent from her husband for a very long time, so Izanagi grew impatient. He decided to disregard Izanami’s request to wait and went inside to look for her. To his horror, he discovered Izanami’s horrific, decaying, yet animated corpse. Izanami was furious that her husband had seen her in this condition. A terrified Izanagi quickly fled the underworld. Izanami pursued him, but her way was blocked by a large boulder that her husband had placed in her path. Izanami was now trapped in the land of the dead. After his escape, Izanagi declared the land of the dead to be an ugly and defiled place. He decided to purify himself by cleansing. This episode is the mythological origin of misogi, a ritual cleansing performed at Shinto shrines and ceremonies that requires that one bathe or immerse oneself in water.

As Izanagi was washing his face, three significant deities were born. The female sun kami, Amaterasu Omikami, emerged from his left eye. The moon kami Tsukuyomi no Mikoto emerged from his right eye. The kami of the seas and storms, Susanoo no Mikoto, emerged from his nose. Izanagi appointed his first child Amaterasu rulership of the heavenly realm, Tsukuyomi with rulership of the night realm, and Susanoo as sovereign of the seas and storms.

Among the three kami deities who were born of Izanagi after he returned from the underworld, Susanoo alone evaded his duties. His disappointed father banished him from the heavens. Before Susanoo left he decided to meet with his older sister, Amaterasu. He travelled to her realm. The commotion surrounding his coming raised suspicions in Amaterasu’s mind regarding her mischievous brother’s intentions. Their encounter led to a heated arguement, fueling animosity and hatred between the siblings. Susanoo spitefully determined to plague his sister with cruel pranks. He destroyed Amaterasu’s rice fields, her sacred hall, and then tossed a flayed horse into her sacred weaving hall. One of Amaterasu’s weavers saw the horse and immediately died of shock. This outrage grieved and angered Amaterasu. Infuriated, she hid herself in a cave and the world was plunged into darkness. To lure her back out of the cave, a legion of kami deities devised and executed an elaborate ruse. They staged a festival that included singing and dancing just outside of the cave’s entrance. Amaterasu, perplexed by the sound of the revelry, cracked open the stone door of the cave to peek outside. The assembled deities took advantage of this opportunity to pry open the door and cast it away. A festival caused the restoration of light to the world.

In a variant of the Shinto creation myth, Amaterasu looked down upon the earth and saw that it was hopelessly chaotic. To remedy this, she delegated several kami deities to bring order to the land. This required many years of toil and trouble, but ultimately order was established. She then proclaimed, “My child, Ameno Oshihomimi no Mikoto, shall rule this land.” When she approached her son about this assignment, however, he explained that he was now married and had children so the wellbeing of his family was his principal obligation. He presented his son, Ninigi no Mikoto, to Amaterasu, suggesting that Ninigi be delegated to govern the islands of Japan in his stead. When Amaterasu beheld her grandson, she was convinced that he was qualified for the job.

Ninigi prepared to descend from the heavenly realm to the archipelago below. He gathered the jewel (Yasakani no Magatama) and the mirror (Yata no kagami) that helped (in some myths) to lure Amaterasu from the cave she had hidden herself in, as well as the sword (Kusanagi no Tsurugi) that Susanoo no Mikoto had taken from the tail of a great serpent and presented to Amaterasu, his sister. These three sacred treasures would later become transformed into the Imperial Regalia of Japan. Amaterasu instructed Ninigi to rule the islands of Japan in her honor and to treat the mirror he carried, Yata no kagami, with reverence as the embodiment of her spirit. Preparations completed, Ninigi departed the Heavenly Ream attended by a procession of kami deities. Upon his arrival, Ninigi declared the land to be good and erected a grand Imperial palace.

Other important divine figures include Inari the rice god kami, seen as being important for merchants, shopkeepers, and artisans. Inari's messenger is the fox, a popular figure in temple art. The Seven Lucky Gods, or Shichifukujin, are also understandably popular. Daikokuten and Ebisu, who represent wealth, are regarded as especially important. Daikokuten is also believed to be the god of the kitchen, so he is honored by cooks and chefs.

Select Shinto mortals were elevated to divine status after their deaths. Perhaps the most famous example of these is the scholar Sugawara no Michizane, also known as Tenjin (845-903 CE), who was badly treated at court and exiled. A wave of devastating fires and plague shortly after his death devastated the imperial capital. Many regarded this as a sign from the gods of their anger about Tenjin's unjust treatment. The impressive Kitano Tenmangu shrine at Kyoto was built in 947 CE in his honour, and Tenjin became the patron god of scholarship and education.

The Shinto and Buddhist faiths became closely intertwined in ancient Japan. In consequence, some Buddhist figures, the bosatsu, or enlightened beings, became popular adoptive kami among practitioners of Shinto. Three examples of bosatsu are Amida (ruler of the Pure Land, or heaven), Kannon (protector of children, women in labor, and the souls of the dead), and Jizo (protector of those in pain, as well as the souls of dead children). Another popular kami common to both Shinto and Buddhism is Hachiman, a warrior god.

Buddhism arrived in Japan in the 6th century BCE as part of a wave of significant Chinese influences on Japanese culture. Other elements included the principles of Taoism and Confucianism, especially the Confucian emphasis upon purity and harmony. These different belief systems were not necessarily opposed. Both Buddhism and Shinto were able to coexist for many centuries in ancient Japan. By the end of the Heian period (794-1185 CE), some Shinto kami spirits and Buddhist bodhisattvas were formally combined to create a single deity, Ryobu Shinto, or Double Shinto. As a result, sometimes images of Buddhist figures were incorporated into Shinto shrines and some Shinto shrines were managed by Buddhist monks. Of the two religions, Shinto was more concerned with life and birth, demonstrated a more tolerant attitude toward women, and was more closely embraced by the imperial house. The two religions would not become officially separated until the 19th century CE.

The main beliefs or key concepts of Shinto are physical cleanliness, the avoidance of disrupting influences, and the cultivation of spiritual purity. Physical well-being is preserved by maintaining harmony in all things. Familial and societal harmony emphasizes procreation and fertility, family and ancestral cohesion, and the subordination of the individual to the group. As aboriginal animists, Shinto adherents maintained their reverence of nature. Morally, it is believed that all things possess the potential for both good and bad. Animism and Shamanism are typically linked. Shamans intercede with the soul (tama) of the dead who can potentially negatively influence the living before it is absorbed into the collective kami of its ancestors.

Shinto shrines, or jinja, are the sacred locations of one or more kami, and there are around 80,000 in Japan. Certain natural features and mountains are also considered as shrines. Early shrines were simple rock altars on which offerings were presented. Later, buildings were constructed around these altars which often copied the design of thatched rice storehouses. From the Sinocentric Nara period beginning in the 8th century CE, temple design displayed Chinese influences, upturned gables and the prodigious use of red paint and decorative elements. Most of these shrines are constructed of Hinoki Cypress.

Shrines are easily identified by the presence of a torii, or sacred gateway. The simplest consists of two upright posts with two longer crossbars atop them. They symbolically separate the sacred space of the shrine from the external world. These gates are often drapped with gohei, twin paper or metal strips ripped into four places which symbolize the kami's presence. A shrine is managed by a head priest (guji) and subordinate priests (kannushi), or, in the case of smaller shrines, by a member of the shrine elders committee (sodai). The local community financially supports the shrine. Individual households often feature an ancestor shrine (kamidana) which contains the names of family members who have passed away and pays homage to the ancestral kami.

The typical Shinto shrine complex includes the following common features: The torii or sacred entrance gate, the honden or sanctuary which contains an image of the shrine's kami, the goshintai or sacred object inside the honden which is invested with the spirit of the kami, the sando or sacred path joining the torii and haiden, the haiden or oratory hall for ceremonies and worship, the heiden, a building for prayers and offerings, the saisenbako, a box for money offerings, the temizuya, a stone water trough for ritual cleansing, and the kaguraden, a pavilion for ritual dancing and music. Larger shrines can also have a large assembly hall and stalls where charms are vended by shrine virgins (miko).

The most important Shinto shrine is the Ise Grand Shrine dedicated to Amaterasu. It is associated with a secondary shrine to the harvest goddess Toyouke. Beginning in the 8th century CE, the tradition arose of reconstructing the shrine of Amaterasu at Ise every twenty years to preserve its vitality. The salvaged material of the old temple is carefully stored, then transported to other shrines where it becomes incorporated into their walls. The second most important shrine is that of Okuninushi at Izumo-taisha. These two are the oldest Shinto shrines in Japan. Besides the most famous shrines, every local community had, and still has, small shrines dedicated to their particular kami spirits. Even modern city buildings can have a small Shinto shrine on their roof. Some shrines are even portable. Called mikoshi, they can be transported so that ceremonies can be performed at locales of exceptional natural beauty.

 The sanctity of shrines requires that worshippers must cleanse themselves (oharai) before entering them. This is commonly accomplished by washing their hands and mouth with water. When about to enter, they make a small monetary offering, ring a small bell, or clap their hands twice to alert the kami, and then bow while declaiming their prayer. A final clap indicates the end of the prayer. It is also possible to request that a priest offer one's prayer. Small offerings might include a bowl of sake (rice wine), rice, and vegetables. Many shrines are located in places of natural beauty such as mountains and waterfalls. A personal visit to these shrines is seen as an act of pilgrimage. Mount Fuji is the pilgrimage destination par excellence. Pilgrims and believers sometimes wear Omamori, which are small, embroidered sachets containing prayers that guarantee a person's well-being. As Shinto has no doctrinal opinion about the afterlife, so Shinto cemeteries are rare. Most followers are cremated and then interred in Buddhist cemeteries.

The calendar is punctuated by religious festivals that honor particular kami. During these events, portable shrines may be taken to sites linked to a kami, or there are parades of colorful floats. Worshippers sometimes dress to impersonate certain divine figures. Amongst the most important annual festivals are the three-day Shogatsu Matsuri, or Japanese New Year festival, the Obon Buddhist celebration of the dead returning to the ancestral home which includes many Shinto rituals, and the annual local matsuri when a shrine is transported around the local community to purify it and to ensure its future well-being.

Shintō can be roughly classified into three major types: Shrine Shinto, Sect Shinto, and Folk Shinto. Shrine Shinto (Jinja Shinto) has been in existence from the beginning of Japanese history to the present day and is the mainstay of Shinto tradition. Shrine Shinto includes within its structure the vestiges of State Shintō (Kokka Shintō) which was based on the complete identity of religion and state and was connected to the Japanese Imperial family. Sect Shinto (Kyoha Shinto) is a relatively new movement that includes thirteen major sects that originated in Japan in the 19th century and several others that emerged after World War II. Each sect was organized into a religious body by a founder. Folk Shinto (Minzoku Shinto) is an aspect of Japanese folk belief that is closely aligned  with the other forms of Shinto. It has no formal organizational structure or doctrine. It is centered in the veneration of small roadside images and in the agricultural rites of rural families. These three types of Shintō are interrelated: Folk Shinto exists as the ancient foundation of contemporary Shinto faith, and Sect Shinto followers are also typically parishioners (ujiko) of a specific Shinto shrine.

Shinto has defined the peoples of Japan since the dawn of Japanese history, so it is not possible to overemphasize its influence on daily Japanese culture and entertainment. Computer games have become one of the major contemporary media outlets. Playing a computer game may not appear to be associated with ethnic belief systems, but when people play a game that is set in ancient Japan they often find themselves fighting against their enemies with the assistance of friends. These friends are often patterned on mythical creatures and kami deities from Japanese mythology. Like most world religions, Japanese mythology is replete with riveting and dramatic stories. The entire story need not be replicated. It is possible to extract selected, but impactful elements to spice up a video game. Shinto has also found its way into animated movies and graphic novels that have garnered large audiences and worldwide acclaim.